Mitochondria and ATP: this is how red light works on your cells

Every movement you make, every thought, and every healing process in your skin requires energy. That energy is produced by the mitochondria in your cells in the form of a molecule called ATP.

In this explanation, you will learn how this works, what red and near-infrared light have to do with this process, and what research does and does not say about it.

What are mitochondria?

Mitochondria are small structures in almost all your cells. They are often called the cell's power plants because they convert nutrients and oxygen into usable energy.

Cells that use a lot of energy, such as those in your heart, brain, and muscles, contain the most. A muscle cell can have hundreds to thousands of them.

What is ATP and why do you need it?

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is your body's energy currency. Contracting muscles, nerves transmitting signals, and cells repairing themselves all use ATP.

When a cell needs energy, it splits ATP into ADP and a phosphate group. This releases energy. The mitochondria then convert ADP back into ATP, and the process continues all day.

Your body stores hardly any ATP. It constantly makes more. It is estimated that each day you process approximately your own body weight in ATP.

How do mitochondria make ATP?

This happens in three steps.

1. Glycolysis

In the cell fluid, glucose is broken down into pyruvate. This produces a small amount of ATP and can also occur without oxygen.

2. The citric acid cycle

Pyruvate enters the mitochondria and is broken down further. This produces the energy-rich molecules NADH and FADH₂, which are needed for the final step.

3. The electron transport chain

By far the most ATP is produced here. In the inner membrane of the mitochondria, four protein complexes pass electrons to one another. This creates a kind of water pressure of protons that drives a "turbine": the enzyme ATP synthase.

At the end of the chain is cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV). This enzyme passes the electrons on to oxygen. This particular enzyme plays the leading role in the effect of red light.

What does red light do to your mitochondria?

Cytochrome c oxidase contains copper and iron centers that can absorb light (Karu, 2010). Research into this effect focuses on light from approximately 590 to 1100 nm: from yellow-orange, through red, to near-infrared.

The brake that is released

The most widely accepted explanation involves nitric oxide (NO). This molecule can bind to cytochrome c oxidase and then acts as a brake: oxygen is less able to bind, and energy production slows down.

Light of the right wavelength can release NO from the enzyme. This allows oxygen to bind again, electrons to flow through more quickly, and ATP production to increase (de Freitas & Hamblin, 2016).

What happens next

After that first step, signals follow in the cell, including a brief increase in reactive oxygen species and signaling via calcium. These signals activate genes involved in repair, cell division, and the cell’s own antioxidant defenses (de Freitas & Hamblin, 2016; Maghfour et al., 2024).

Not the whole story

Scientists have not yet reached agreement that cytochrome c oxidase is the only explanation. There is also evidence for other pathways, such as light-sensitive ion channels and an effect on water in the cell (Hamblin & Liebert, 2022). The mechanism is therefore still being extensively researched.

What does research in humans show?

Most research on mitochondria has been conducted in cells and animals. There are also studies in humans. A few examples:

• Measurement in the body. Researchers exposed the forearms of 11 healthy participants to 1064 nm laser light and used spectroscopy to measure an increase in oxidized cytochrome c oxidase and oxygenated blood, compared with a placebo (Wang et al., 2016). Later, they observed the same in the prefrontal cortex (Wang et al., 2017).
• Skin. In a controlled study with 136 participants, the treatment groups received 30 sessions of red or red plus near-infrared light. Compared with the control group, they showed an improvement in skin roughness and in collagen density measured by ultrasound (Wunsch & Matuschka, 2014).
• Wrinkles around the eyes. In 137 women, 10 sessions with 590 nm or 660 nm light led to approximately 30% less wrinkle volume around the eyes (Mota et al., 2023).

Review studies also raise a caveat: many studies are small, use different settings, and are sometimes funded by manufacturers (Glass, 2021). Therefore, view research as guidance, not a guarantee.

More is not always better

Light follows a so-called biphasic dose-response. Too little light has little effect. An appropriate dose produces the greatest effect. With much more light, the effect decreases again (Huang et al., 2011).

That is why it is not only the wavelength that matters, but also the light intensity, the distance, and the duration of a session (Maghfour et al., 2024). Follow the recommended session time in your device’s manual.

Which wavelengths have been studied the most?

For mitochondria, there are three groups:

• Yellow-orange light (around 590 nm) affects the upper layers of the skin.
• Red light (approximately 600 to 700 nm) mainly affects the skin.
• Near-infrared light (approximately 700 to 1100 nm) penetrates deeper.

Would you like to know what each wavelength does and how deeply it penetrates? Read our explanation of red light wavelengths.

How do you support your mitochondria in everyday life?

Light is only one factor. The foundation is your lifestyle:

• Exercise. Endurance training in particular prompts your body to produce more and better mitochondria, while strength training helps maintain your muscles.
• Sleep. During sleep, cells repair themselves and remove damaged components.
• A varied diet. Your mitochondria need, among other things, B vitamins, iron, and magnesium to function properly.
• Daylight. Sunlight naturally contains red and near-infrared light. Going outside for a while is always a good start.

Red light therapy can be a supplement to that, not a replacement.

Frequently asked questions

Can red light restore your mitochondria?

Research shows that red and near-infrared light can increase the activity of cytochrome c oxidase. Whether this produces a noticeable change for you depends on your situation, the dose, and how often you use it. Results vary from person to person.

How long does it take before you notice something?

In the skin studies above, measurements were taken after 10 sessions over 4 weeks and after 30 sessions over approximately 15 weeks. Consistency is more important than long sessions.

Does the light pass through clothing?

Hardly. Clothing blocks most of the light. Therefore, use red light on bare skin.

Is red light safe?

Red light therapy is generally well tolerated in research. The most commonly reported side effect is temporary skin redness (Maghfour et al., 2024). Do not look directly into the light for extended periods and follow your device's instructions. Do you have symptoms or take medication that makes you photosensitive? Consult your doctor first.

Read more

• Red light wavelengths: what do 590 to 1072 nm do?
• Explanation of red and infrared light
• Explanation of red light therapy

Sources

1. de Freitas LF, Hamblin MR. Proposed mechanisms of photobiomodulation or low-level light therapy. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 2016. View study
2. Karu T. Mitochondrial mechanisms of photobiomodulation in context of new data about multiple roles of ATP. Photomedicine and Laser Surgery, 2010. View study
3. Maghfour J, et al. Photobiomodulation CME part I: overview and mechanism of action. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 2024. View study
4. Hamblin MR, Liebert A. Photobiomodulation therapy mechanisms beyond cytochrome c oxidase. Photobiomodulation, Photomedicine, and Laser Surgery, 2022. View study
5. Wang X, et al. Interplay between up-regulation of cytochrome-c-oxidase and hemoglobin oxygenation induced by near-infrared laser. Scientific Reports, 2016. View study
6. Wang X, et al. Up-regulation of cerebral cytochrome-c-oxidase and hemodynamics by transcranial infrared laser stimulation. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism, 2017. View study
7. Wunsch A, Matuschka K. A controlled trial to determine the efficacy of red and near-infrared light treatment in patient satisfaction, reduction of fine lines, wrinkles, skin roughness, and intradermal collagen density increase. Photomedicine and Laser Surgery, 2014. View study
8. Mota LR, et al. Photobiomodulation reduces periocular wrinkle volume by 30%: a randomized controlled trial. Photobiomodulation, Photomedicine, and Laser Surgery, 2023. View study
9. Glass GE. Photobiomodulation: the clinical applications of low-level light therapy. Aesthetic Surgery Journal, 2021. View study
10. Huang YY, et al. Biphasic dose response in low level light therapy: an update. Dose-Response, 2011. View study

Written by Chaya Bollebakker, founder of Panacea Light Therapy. Updated on October 15, 2026.

Red light therapy is a wellness application and not a substitute for medical care. Results vary from person to person. Consult your doctor if you have symptoms.